Within this there were those from the depressed rather oppressed castes who were outsiders (by caste) to an otherwise all embracing tradition. Chokhamela and compatriot and partner Soyrabai were one such, Ravidas from Banaras (Varanasi) with a huge influence in Punjab was another. Babasaheb Ambedkar, who’s father was a kabirpanthi, looked deep within this tradition. While otherwise critical, he had a special place and mention for three renowned poet-philosophers (read Saints!)

Delving deep into the rich, suppressed history of the Mahars and other depressed castes, Ambedkar dedicated his book, The Untouchables—who are they and why they became untouchanbles to the memory of Mahar Varkari (Warkari) poet-philosopher, Chokhamela, Nandana, both from Maharashtra and Ravidas from the Punjab.

Chokhamela’s is a fascinating story. Born in the 14^th century into the Mahar caste in Mehuna Raja a village in Deulgaon Raja Taluka of Buldanha direct, lived in Mangalvedha and wrote hundreds of Abhangs, that unique expression of radical self-exploratory poetry in Marathi. Among his most widely sung is “Abir Gulal Udhlit Rang”. The Chokhamela festival is now celebrated thanks to activist Arvind Prabhakar Kayande in Deulgaon Raja. Residing with his life partner and wide Siyrabai –herself a brilliantly accomplished poet—and son Karmamela (hs “job” was to guard and work the farms of the privileged), all of the family were followers of the Varkari sect. Nirmalabai his sister is also an accomplished poet. His immediate menor was Namdev (1270-1350 AD/CE) especially after one visit to Pandharpur when he listened to Namdev’s Kirtans. Later he moved to Pandharpur, the site of the Vithoba temple. One traditional story strongly suggests that caste exclusions did not “allow” him to enter his precious Vithoba’s temple at Pandharpur nor was he allowed to even stand at the door and worship. So, in devotional protest he built his hut on the other side of the Chandrabhaga.

The tale does not end there. While working on construction of a wall in Mangalvedha, near Pandharpur, the wall collapsed crushing some workers. Chokha was tragically one of them. His tomb is in front of the Vitthal temple, Pandharpur, where it can be seen to this day. According to a legend the bones of the dead Chokhamela were still chanting Vitthal , Vitthal, apparently yearning to visit the Vitthal temple. The bones were buried at the footsteps of the Vitthal temple. And this is the poet-philosopher to whom, in the early 20th century, Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar dedicated his book. Ambedkar too attempted to visit the temple, but was stopped at the burial site of Chokhamela and denied entry beyond that point outcaste for being a Mahar!

We carry here a piece by scholar Yogesh Maitreya with due attribution to The Indian Cultural Forum, today when Warkaris (Varkaris) have been lathi-charged in Maharashtra in as a tribute to the rich spirituality and diversity that this tradition has inspired

                                                                                                                 –Editors

In 1928, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar was asked to preside over a meeting to consider building a temple dedicated to Chokhamela, a 14th-century mahar caste saint-poet from Maharashtra. Ambedkar knew of the songs and the abhanga style of poetry popularised by the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra and beyond. His own father was a Kabirpanthi, or follower of the 15th-century mystic poet, Kabir. Yet, on the temple proposed for Chokhamela, he presented a skeptical—though still radical—opinion about saint poets and the Bhakti movement.

“…the struggle of the saints did not have any effect on society,” Ambedkar famously told the gathering at Trymbak near Nashik in Maharashtra. “The value of man is axiomatic, self evident; it does not come to him as the result of the gilding of Bhakti,” he said. “The saints did not struggle to establish this point. On the contrary their struggle had a very unhealthy effect on the Depressed Classes.”[1]

This address by Ambedkar is recorded in the 17th volume of his Books, Writings and Speeches, published by the Government of Maharashtra in 2016. It records him saying that the Bhakti saints “…provided the Brahmins with an excuse to silence them [the Depressed Classes] by telling that they would be respected if they also attained the status of Chokhamela.”

By 1928, a new class of intellectuals, including Ambedkar, had emerged in India’s political and social life. Their commentaries on organised religion were radical and profound. They had started to reject outright the oppression that stemmed from religion. Also, by then, religion had become a matter of inquiry and interrogation; it was no longer considered a subject of just spirituality or romanticism. These changes were inevitable in the wake of scientific innovations and technological advancements of the age. This was the context of Ambedkar’s Trymbak address.

Even ninety years later, Chokhamela is only a small reference in the long history of Maharashtra. His works have not much currency among intellectuals or scholars. The American historian of South Asia Eleanor Zelliot has aptly captured the reasons for this. She says in the book Untouchable Saints, edited by her and Rohini Mokashi-Punekar and published in 2005 by Manohar, that “Those of Chokhamela’s caste now have by and large rejected him, and for two reasons: the Buddhist conversion initiated by Dr BR Ambedkar in 1956 has meant a rejection of most things Hindu on the part of many. Second, Chokhamela himself, in one abhanga, said that he was Untouchable because in a previous life he had insulted Krishna, and this karmic reasoning is totally unacceptable to Untouchables now.”[2]

Yet, Chokhamela’s 13th to 14th-century abhangas, and the songs of other Maharashtrian dalit-bahujan saint-poets from the Bhakti movement, offer a complex and crucial narrative to understand the inception and growth of resistance in future dalit traditions and movements. This is specially significant in the context of the Varakari tradition prevalent in Maharashtra. Every year, after the season’s first seeds have been sown in farms, devotees travel on foot—a journey called Vari—to the temple dedicated to Vitthal or Vithoba.

Consider the influence of this tradition in rural Maharashtra. Rohini Mokashi-Punekar, a professor of English at IIT Guwahati says in Untouchable Saints, “The Varkari cult is clearly the most quietly influential mass movement of rural Maharashtra.” She records the most striking feature of this cult as the absence of a priest to mediate between the devotee and his bhakta. “…no rigorous individual ritual such as elaborate pujas are needed. It is a code most suited to poor, illiterate, labouring castes and peasants who can afford neither money nor leisure nor learning… For the fifty odd saint-poets belonging to this tradition, drawn from almost all castes of the region of those times, the abhanga is the most important medium of comprehending, reaching, and expressing the sense of divine mystery and joy; it is also the means of articulating pain and anger against injustice.”[3]

These fifty or so saint-poets were predominantly from dalit-bahujan castes and Chokhamela was the most prominent among them, and the most notable from the mahar caste among the Bhakti poets of Maharashtra. His continuing popularity is therefore a creation of a dalit-bahujan literary imagination. The narratives they crafted did not explicitly pursue the path of annihilation of caste. Yet they exercised their agency in the domain of literary imagination as equals. To be able to enter and participate in this domain, especially as it pertains to religious discourse, cannot be trivialised. For this very domain had been distorted by brahminical narratives and had rejected them.

After Chokhamela’s arrival—himself was a labourer—fresh dalit-bahujan metaphors and perspectives emerged for referring to god. “It is said that Chokha died along with another Mahar labourer when a part of the wall they were repairing in the town of Mangalvedhe collapsed on them,”[4] the editors of Untouchable Saintsrecord. His abhangas have a dalit literary perspective that is never found in literary works written by brahmins of his time, nor in brahminical narratives.

He writes in Abhanga 284:

He pulled a wall for

Dnyaneshwar; made Changdev

famous; weeded the beds

for Savata the gardener

and fired pots for Gora.

He loves more than his own self

the goldsmith, the cobbler

and Namdev, the tailor.

He grinds the grain

at Jani’s home, sweeps the dirt

and brings the cow-dung in.

Says Chokha, he is so tender,

his devotees know him

as a fond mother.

Study this abhanga closely. Chokhamela has radically replaced the existence of god into everyday chores, making his verse the antithesis of brahminical narratives. This is the reason for his verses acquiring mass appeal across castes. He associates the image of god with the process of dalit-bahujan labour and occupations, which fulfil the material functions of society.

In the twenty-first century, Chokhamela may not appear radical, but for when he wrote, the 14th century, his ideas are strongly iconoclastic. The cruel social circumstances manufactured around idea of religion by brahmans, who had glibly started to give a brahminical veneer to all dalit-bahujan ideas—including their ideas of religion and traditions.

Not only does Chokhamela reject the existence of brahminical scriptures and their gods but also fought those notions by bringing in the Buddhist dialectic of impermanence. In another abhanga, number 282[5], he says:

The Vedas and the shastras

polluted; the puranas inauspicious,

impure; the body, the soul

contaminated; the manifest

being is the same.

Brahma polluted, Vishnu too;

Shankar is impure, inauspicious.

Birth impure, dying is impure.

Says Chokha,

pollution stretches

without beginning

and end.

For his time or any, these words rejecting the vedas and the shastras are no less than revolutionary. Besides, Chokhamela equates the existence of untouchables—the mahars were regarded as Untouchable in his time—with god.

An explanation of his use of Buddhist dialectics is to be found in Chokhamela’s abhanga 279:

Five elements compound the impure body;

All things mix,

Thrive in the world.

Then who is pure and impure?

The body is rooted in impurity.

From the beginning to the end,

Endless impurities

Heap themselves.

Who is it that can be made pure?

Says Chokha,

I am struck with wonder.

Can anyone be beyond pollution?

The idea of pollution and purity is a product of the wily imagination of brahmans. Here, he has dealt with it in a radical scientific temper that is as categorical as the laws of physics. This is important, for the scientific temper is the premise on which the dalit literary imagination stands and thrives till today. This creative imagination was not limited to Maharashtra. In roughly the same period came Ravidas, the most radical and scientific saint-poet in north India. It is yet Chokhamela’s voice that was the breakthrough cry in the dalit literary imagination. Today, his abhangas are on the lips of people across castes from interior Maharashtra, where they are sung during the Vari of Pandharpur.

Earlier this year, this writer said in the Economic and Political Weekly (From Shahiri to Sahitya, February 2019) that before the advent of dalit literary forms as a movement, Ambedkari Shahiri and its sound became the medium for dalits/Ambedkarites to understand, recognise, articulate and assert their anti-caste agency. An anti-caste consciousness grew in the community and seeded the imagination of dalit writers. In the 1970s, they produced a body of literature that was called “dalit literature”. “In the emergence of dalit literature, the sound of Shahiri played a crucial role as it challenged the domains of brahminical consciousness; dalit literature became the later manifestation of this challenge as well as a product of the sonic imagination of Ambedkari Shahiri.”[6]

To understand Chokhamela’s abhangas it is important to penetrate the context of the effect his music and poetry had, and to discern its popularity. His work has scaled the temporal barrier to transcend centuries and it took a giant leap when it comes to inquiring into brahminical scriptures and religion.

He was inclined towards acceptance by god and brahminical agency, but in his abhangas Chokhamela simply exercised his rights as a human being. A right which was denied, crushed and snatched from him and his community by brahmins.

Notes:

1. BAWS, page 8-9, Vol 17 Part three, Government of Maharashtra, 2016
2. Untouchable Saints, edited by Eleanor Zelliot and Rohini Mokashi-Punekar, Manohar, 2005
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. All Abhangas are from collected edition, Shri Sant Chokhamela: Charitra ani Abhang (rept. 1998) by S.B. Kadam
6. “From Shahiri to Sahitya”, Yogesh Maitreya, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 54, Issue No. 6, 09 Feb, 2019

(The author is a poet, translator and founder of Panther’s Paw Publication, an anti-caste publishing house. He was in 2021 when this was written for the Indian Cultural Forum pursuing a PhD at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.)

Related:

Police lathi charge Warkari devotees during annual pilgrimage walk: Alandi, Pune, Oppition sharply condemns attack

Political Power & narrow vision demonising Muslims, destroying harmony & defaming Varkari tradition says Sant Suhas Maharaj Phadtare: Trimbakeshwar row

The post Chokhamela’s Bhakti: the past transforms into a radical present appeared first on SabrangIndia.

Warkari devotees on way to a temple in Pandharpur were reportedly lathicharged by the Maharashtra police in Pune district on Sunday. This is the first time Warkaris — devotees of the Lord Vithoba — have been subjected to police action in the state. Sources indicated that the devotees had got into an argument with the police during the procession. The altercation took place during entry into the Shree Kshetra temple of Alandi town — 22 km from Pune city — for a ceremony. The departure of the Santshreshtha Dnaneshwar Mauli and Sant Tukaram Maharaj Palkhi (s) (palanquins) from Alandi from Dehu on June 10 signifies the beginning of this grand pilgrimage. The Warkaris are expected to converge in the sacred town of Pandharpur on the auspicious day of Ashadhi Ekadashi on June 29. The Warkaris are pilgrims walk from Alandi to the Vithal temple in Pandharpur. The walk had started from June 11.

Police sources as also reported by NDTV and TimeNow said they had resorted to mild lathicharge to control the overwhelming number of devotees. “The rule is to allow only 75 members to enter the premises but instead, around 400 people were trying to forcibly enter the temple,” the media outlets quoted the police as saying. . This version has been strongly contested by those who regularly participate in this annual pilgrimage.

Saleem Sarang tweeted this Video of the police action.

वारीची थोर परंपरा असलेल्या महाराष्ट्रात आळंदीच्या पुण्यभूमीवर वारकऱ्यांवर पोलिसांनी लाठीमार करणे हे राज्याचे दुर्दैव आहे. प्रशासनाच्या गैरव्यवस्थापनाचा आणि पोलिसांच्या अरेरावीचा निषेध! सरकारला याचा जाब द्यावा लागणार.#Pune #वारी #आळंदी #alandi#Maharashtrapolice pic.twitter.com/5zlqNeEfoM

— Saleem Sarang (@Sarangsspeaks) June 11, 2023

Ajit Pawar, leader of the Opposition in the state assembly and other NCP leaders sharply condemned the police action.

संतश्रेष्ठ ज्ञानेश्वर माऊली पालखीच्या आळंदीहून प्रस्थान सोहळ्यावेळी वारकरी बांधवांवर झालेल्या पोलीस लाठीमाराची घटना क्लेशदायक आहे. महाराष्ट्राच्या संत, भक्तीपरंपरेचं वैभव असलेल्या पंढरपूर वारीच्या इतिहासात असं यापूर्वी घडलं नव्हतं. आजची घटना मनाला दु:ख देणारी आहे. सोहळ्याचं योग्य…

— Ajit Pawar (@AjitPawarSpeaks) June 11, 2023

“The police action on Varkari brothers during the departure ceremony of the Santshreshtha Dnaneshwar Mauli palanquin from Alandi is painful. This has not happened in the history of the Pandharpur Wari which is the glory of saints and the devotional traditions of Maharashtra. It could have been avoided. It is hearbreaking. I strongly condemn the police lathi charge and the government action against the Varkaris,” said Pawar in a strongly worded tweet.

संतश्रेष्ठ ज्ञानेश्वर माऊली पालखीच्या आळंदीहून प्रस्थान सोहळ्यावेळी वारकरी बांधवांवर झालेल्या पोलीस लाठीमाराची घटना क्लेशदायक आहे. महाराष्ट्राच्या संत, भक्तीपरंपरेचं वैभव असलेल्या पंढरपूर वारीच्या इतिहासात असं यापूर्वी घडलं नव्हतं. आजची घटना मनाला दु:ख देणारी आहे. सोहळ्याचं योग्य नियोजन करुन हा प्रसंग टाळता आला असता, परंतु तसं घडलं नाही. वारकऱ्यांवरील पोलीस लाठीमाराचा आणि लाठीमार करणाऱ्या सरकारचा मी तीव्र शब्दात निषेध करतो. महाराष्ट्राला पंढरपूरच्या आषाढी वारीची गौरवशाली परंपरा आहे. आषाढी वारी आणि आळंदीहून निघणारी संतश्रेष्ठ ज्ञानेश्वर महाराजांची पालखी हे आपल्या महाराष्ट्राच्या अध्यात्म, भक्ती परंपरेचं वैभव आहे. दरवर्षी वारीसाठी हजारो वारकरी आळंदीत येतात. वारी आणि प्रस्थान सोहळ्याचं योग्य नियोजनही केलं जातं. वारकरीही या नियोजनाला सहकार्य करत असतात. परंतु यंदा कुठेतरी चूक घडलेली दिसत आहे. प्रशासनाच्या गैरव्यवस्थापनामुळे हे घडल्याचं दिसत आहे. ही संपूर्ण घटना दु:खदायक, तशीच मनाला चीड आणणारी आहे. अशी घटना यापुढे घडू नये, यासाठी पूर्ण काळजी घेण्यात यावी. कुठल्याही आध्यात्मिक कार्यात आणि पंढरपूर वारीसारख्या सोहळ्यात सहभागी होताना, सर्वांनी राजकीय हेतू बाजूला ठेवावा. ईश्वरभक्ती आणि वारकऱ्यांची सेवा हाच हेतू मनात ठेवून वारीत सहभागी व्हावं, असं आवाहन आहे.

Supriya Sule, Member of Parliament (MP) from Baramati and senior leader of the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) took to twitter to strongly condemn the incident (6.15 p.m.). She in her inimitable style put the responsibility of this administrative and police mismanagement on the Shinde-Phadnavis government in the state.

वारकऱ्यांवर लाठीमार करणाऱ्या सरकारचा निषेध असो.!
जे आजवर कधीही घडले नाही ते यावर्षी घडले. वारीची शेकडो वर्षांची परंपरा आहे. यापुर्वी कधीही वारकऱ्यांवर बळाचा वापर केल्याची घटना घडली नव्हती. आपल्या साध्या आणि सोप्या शिकवणूकीतून वारकऱ्यांनी देशाला वेळोवेळी दिशा दाखविली आहे.… https://t.co/SdcdCJWLYL

— Supriya Sule (@supriya_sule) June 11, 2023

“What has never happened before in Maharashtra has now happened. There has never been an incident of force used on Warkaris before this. Through their simple and inclusive traditions the Warkaris have shown the country the way from time to time. Mauli Dindi’s ceremony was marred by mismanagement by the administration. The lathi charge for the pilgrims who came for the Dindi ceremony is very disturbing. There is need to in investigate, find out who’s guilty and take action,” she tweeted in Marathi.

“वर खासदार सुप्रिया सुळे यांनी प्रतिक्रिया दिली आहे. वारकऱ्यांवर लाठीमार करणाऱ्या सरकारचा निषेध असो.!जे आजवर कधीही घडले नाही ते यावर्षी घडले. वारीची शेकडो वर्षांची परंपरा आहे. या पूर्वी कधीही वारकऱ्यांवर बळाचा वापर केल्याची घटना घडली नव्हती. आपल्या साध्या आणि सोप्या शिकवणूकीतून वारकऱ्यांनी देशाला वेळोवेळी दिशा दाखविली आहे. माऊलींच्या दिंडी सोहळ्याला प्रशासनाच्या गैरव्यवस्थापनामुळे गालबोट लागले. दिंडी सोहळ्यासाठी आलेल्या वारकऱ्यांवर झालेला लाठीहल्ला हा अतिशय संतापजनक प्रकार आहे. या प्रकरणी दोषी व्यक्तींची चौकशी करुन त्यांच्यावर तातडीने कारवाई करण्याची गरज आहे, असे सुळे यांनी ट्विटमध्ये म्हटले आहे.

Nana Patole of the Indian National Congress in a strong video tweeted at midnight has condemnded condemning the incident blaming the “sin” of acting against the syncretic Warkari tradition on a casteist and communal government of Eknath Shinde Shiv Sena and Devendra Phadnavis of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). “This centuries’ old tradition has been attacked by Shinde-Phadnavis.” This is a progressive tradition that takes all communities together, Maharashtrian tradition, gave society an outward looking vision, has been attacked by a communal and casteist government; this is a sin committed by them that the Congress party condemns in no uncertain terms.”

दंगेखोरांना मोकाट सोडून वारकऱ्यांवर लाठीचार्ज करणा-या शिंदे फडणवीसांचा धिक्कार. pic.twitter.com/FgXtpBuOdL

— Nana Patole (@NANA_PATOLE) June 11, 2023

Deputy Chief Minister Devendra Fadnavis denied allegations of lathicharge and called it a “minor scuffle”. “There was no lathicharge on the Warkari community,” Mr Fadnavis told reporters in Nagpur.

श्री क्षेत्र आळंदी येथे वारकरी बांधवांवर पोलिसांनी लाठीमार केल्याचा प्रकार अत्यंत संतापजनक आहे. वारकरी संप्रदायाचा पाया रचणारे थोर संत ज्ञानेश्वर महाराज यांच्या आळंदीत वारकरी बांधवांचा झालेला हा अपमान अत्यंत निषेधार्ह आहे. वारकरी संप्रदाय, वारकरी बांधव यांच्याबद्दल सरकारची काही… pic.twitter.com/IDtIy1azn3

— Chhagan Bhujbal (@ChhaganCBhujbal) June 11, 2023

Chaggan Bhujbal

The manner in which the police batoned the Warkari brothers in Sri Kshetra Alandi is very outrageous. This insult to the Warkaris in the presence of the great saint Dnyaneshwar Maharaj, who laid the foundation of the Warkari sect, is highly condemnable. Does the government have any responsibility towards Warkari sect or not?” tweeted NCP’s Chaggan Bhujbal.

Sanjay Raut, editor of the Udhav Thackeray’s Shiv Sena Saamna was equally unequivocal. He condemned the “hoax of Hindutva’ played by the Eknath Shinde-BJP government in the state.

The SaamnaOnline tweeted this Video

संतश्रेष्ठ ज्ञानेश्वर माऊलींच्या पालखी सोहळ्याचे आज आळंदीमधून प्रस्थान होत आहे. तत्पूर्वी पोलीस आणि वारकऱ्यांमध्ये तणाव निर्माण झाला. यावेळी पोलिसांनी वाकऱ्यांवर सौम्य लाठीचार्जही केला. pic.twitter.com/gqvy0s5AC9

— Saamana (@SaamanaOnline) June 11, 2023

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